Ancient Trade Routes in the Mediterranean

Bronze Age: The First International Maritime Trading Networks in the Mediterranean

Uncover the contrasting trade networks of the Eastern and Western Mediterranean during the Bronze Age, exploring production hubs, trade routes, and the cultural impact of these ancient exchanges.

By Nick Nutter on 2025-03-26 | Last Updated 2025-03-27 | Ancient Trade Routes in the Mediterranean

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Bronze Age model of boat - Sardinia

Seafaring during the Bronze Age in the Mediterranean Summary

The advent of the Bronze Age brought about significant changes in Mediterranean societies, leading to an intensification and diversification of maritime trade. The development of metallurgy, specifically the ability to produce bronze by alloying copper and tin, created a substantial demand for these raw materials, which were not uniformly distributed across the region. This increasing need for resources, coupled with the emergence of elites in urban centres in the Middle East after 3500 BC who sought status-enhancing products from abroad, spurred the growth of more complex and long-distance maritime exchange.

Early Metallurgical Developments: Copper and Bronze Age Transitions

The Neolithic period merged into the age of metals, copper and bronze. This occurred at different times in different places. In the eastern Mediterranean, in the Middle East, the Copper Age started in about 5000 BC and the Bronze Age about 3300 BC. On the Iberian Peninsula, in the western Mediterranean, the Neolithic period merged into the Copper Age about 3200 BC, and the Bronze Age about 2200 BC.

The Earliest Bronze: Tin-Bronze in Serbia

The first recorded use of tin-bronze was in Serbia between 4650 BC and 4000 BC, likely utilizing locally sourced tin deposits. The refining of metals, created a demand for metallic ores, lead, copper and later, tin, to make bronze. Such was the utility and appeal of these new materials, conjured up from the earth, that the techniques used to refine and mould them spread rapidly.

Rise of Elite Societies and Trade: Demand for Exotic Goods

After about 3500 BC, societies in Egypt and Mesopotamia began their meteoric rise to statehood. In the process, a few became materially wealthy whilst the majority of the autonomous Neolithic villagers were reduced to peasantry and were exploited to produce that wealth. The value of metallic products was not lost on an emerging elite. Competition between the few to enhance their status amongst their peers created a demand for exotic products, including those manufactured from lead, copper and bronze, whether in the form of home-produced exotica or items from overseas. Control of the sources of such exotica, the routes to refining and manufacturing bases, and eventually to market, created new wealth generating opportunities for the few.

Bronze Age Superpowers: International Maritime Networks

The second millennium BC witnessed the rise of the Bronze Age ‘superpowers’, the Mycenaean Civilisation, the Hittite Empire, the Middle Babylonian Kingdom, the Egyptian New Kingdom, the Kingdom of Mitanni, and the Middle Assyrian Kingdom, all of which had an insatiable appetite for precious metals and unfamiliar products from the boundaries of an ever-expanding known world. Not to mention gold, primarily from Egypt.

Early Maritime Routes: Egyptian, Cetinian, and Minoan Networks

As the new Neolithic communities west of the Middle East developed their own societies and with them, an identity, the first international maritime networks appeared. From as early as the classical Greek period, historians began to label those networks according to whichever society appeared to be the dominant motivator of trade. So, we learn about what we call today, the Egyptian maritime trading routes to the Levant, the Cetinian network in the Adriatic Sea, and the Minoan network throughout the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean Seas. The Minoans expanded their tentacles into the central Mediterranean as far as Italy, Sicily and Sardinia. The Mycenaeans took over the Minoan routes and extended them as far as the Iberian Peninsula.

Complex Trade Dynamics: Local and International Merchant Interactions

Modern historians view this concept as too simplistic. What actually occurred is that maritime traders from the east plugged into the by now established local Neolithic networks as they moved west. The benefit to the traders is that the Neolithic maritime networks linked to further coastal destinations and to the land-based trading routes, giving the eastern merchants immediate access to the hinterland via indigenous marine and land traders and, crucially, vice versa, giving the marine traders access to the resources of the hinterland. The international maritime merchants, although literally in the same boat, may well have been of mixed racial origins and the various colonies that they established also likely constituted people of mixed races and beliefs. It may be conjectured that a merchant ship at sea owed no allegiance to any particular nation, it was a law and society unto itself, only obeying local traditions, and paying taxes, when it touched land.

Nodes of Influence: Cultural and Trade Exchange Centres

It is therefore more accurate to understand the sea trade networks that developed during the Bronze Age as areas of influence where international maritime seafarers worked in conjunction with local traders and acted as a conduit, not just for freight, but also technology and customs. Those areas of influence often overlapped and certain nodes of influence became important cultural and trade exchange centres. The same nodes became very wealthy through the taxation of imports and exports. We see evidence, through sources such as the Kanesh Archives and the Ugarit texts, that the land-based merchants in those exchange centres were in effect, the first freight forwarders and maintained warehouses to stockpile and protect their freight. In this way, goods could travel along the length of the Mediterranean Sea, sometimes via a number of carriers.

Commodity Distribution: Exchange and Barter Systems

A quick note here. Distribution diagrams of various artefacts, typically show a concentration near the source and dwindling numbers the further from the source the artefact has travelled. International sea traders at this time, did not take and fulfil orders (exceptions may be the bulk carrying of metal ingots and ore and the transport of grain to relieve famine later in the Bronze Age). Each merchant was aware of the intrinsic value of each commodity carried and through a system of exchange and barter, making a profit each time, distributed the artefacts, in ever decreasing numbers, as they travelled between harbours.

Egyptian Maritime Trade: Controlled Systems and Colonies

Egypt was the exception. Late to the Mediterranean party, they only began maritime trading in the Mediterranean after 3500 BC, they set up an administrative system to control exports and imports and established colonies that they policed in Canaan and Syria. In many respects, the Egyptians set up a single flag sea trading network, unlike the multiple flag networks that predominated in the Mediterranean at this time. Many of the aspects of the Egyptian system were to be emulated after 1200 BC by the Phoenicians.

Bronze Age Collapse and Recovery: Coastal Cabotage and Resilience

By 1200 BC, the eastern and central Mediterranean Sea was a hive of trading activity when, in the Middle East, one catastrophe after another precipitated the downfall of the Bronze Age empires. Whilst the Bronze Age populations in the Middle East and Aegean decreased and the remaining populations reverted to a rural lifestyle, overseas trade likewise diminished. Demand for goods from the west (and Asia to the east), shrank. The international marine traders however, although no doubt suffering from a shortage of customers, did not entirely disappear and short range coastal cabotage, an essential component within the established areas of influence, continued, if only to satisfy a reduced, local, market.

Western Mediterranean Developments: Independent Metallurgy

In the western Mediterranean, the last area of the Mediterranean basin to be converted to Neolithic practices, isolated and largely unaffected, from the goings on in the Middle East, societies developed their own identities and lifestyles and, in the far west, in places rich in mineral resources, an independent, if somewhat later, metallurgy.

Iberian Peninsula Trade Routes: Land and Sea Networks

The northeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula, extending into southwestern France, formed one linked unit as the Neolithic spread westwards. This unit made an easy land-based connection with the Atlantic on the eastern shores of the Bay of Biscay via the rivers Aude, the Carcassonne Gap and the Garonne to the Gironde Estuary. An alternative, well-trodden route was from the Gulf of Lion, up the River Rhone to the vicinity of Lyon, a short walk west to the Loire and down the Loire to its estuary on the Bay of Biscay at Brittany.

Atlantic Bronze Age: Western Trade Affiliations

The western parts of the Iberian Peninsula and southwestern Spain, beyond their own coastal systems, looked more to the south to Africa, and northwest to Portugal, than to the east. The Portuguese Atlantic coast had more in common with Galicia, Brittany, southwest Britain, Ireland and Scotland, than with the eastern or even central Mediterranean. The loose affiliations in the west formed a trading network that would come to be labelled the Atlantic Bronze Age.

The two western Mediterranean networks, loosely connected, had intermittent contact with the central Mediterranean networks, meeting at Sardinia.

Phoenician Resurgence: Re-assembling Trade Networks

Soon after the Bronze Age collapse, the surviving coastal Canaanite cities revived themselves and set about re-assembling all the areas of trading influence under their own banner. They became known as the Phoenicians. Like their predecessors before the collapse, they progressively plugged into existing maritime and land-based systems as their influence spread from east to west, eventually converging with the Atlantic Bronze traders, probably at the trading hub of Sardinia, and thus completed a network that could reach the entire, known, western world.

Early Bronze Age Maritime Trade: Evidence of Expanding Networks

Copper oxhide ingots - Sardinia

The Early Bronze Age witnessed a significant expansion of maritime trade, driven by the increasing demand for metals and other valuable commodities. Archaeological discoveries and technological advancements provide compelling evidence of these early trade routes.

Early Harbour Infrastructure: Submerged Seawall at Hreiz, Israel

Evidence of early harbour construction: A submerged probable seawall, dated to approximately 5500-5000 BC, was found at Hreiz in Israel, suggesting early attempts at creating a harbour infrastructure.

Metal Trade Origins: Tin-Bronze and Early Metallurgical Exchange

Earliest recorded tin-bronze use: Early evidence of metal trade during this period includes the first recorded use of tin-bronze in Serbia between 4650 BC and 4000 BC, likely utilizing locally sourced tin deposits.

Anatolian tin exports to Cyprus: By 3200 BC, tin was being exported to Cyprus from Anatolia, where it was alloyed with locally sourced copper, and the resulting bronze was then traded to various countries in the eastern Mediterranean.

Kestel tin mine operation: The tin mine at Kestel in Southern Türkiye, which contains miles of tunnels, was actively exploited from 3250 to 1800 BC, highlighting the early efforts to secure this crucial resource.

Key Archaeological Sites: Insights into Early Bronze Age Trade

Several key archaeological sites and artifact discoveries provide further insights into the maritime trade of the Early Bronze Age.

Khirbat Hamra Ifdan: Specialized Metal Production in Jordan

Mass production of metal tools: A significant discovery at the Early Bronze Age metal factory of Khirbat Hamra Ifdan in Jordan, dating to around 2700 BC, revealed hundreds of clay casting moulds for copper ingots, axes, chisels, and pins. The sheer scale of production at this site, exceeding that of other known contemporary centres, strongly suggests specialized manufacturing aimed at a wider distribution through trade networks that extended across the early Middle East. This indicates that even in the Early Bronze Age, a demand existed for standardized metal tools that necessitated specialized production and exchange.

Aegean Metal Exchange: Simple Copper Tools and Weaponry

Localized exchange of copper awls and pins: Simple copper awls and pins, found at various Aegean sites such as Dikili Tash in northeastern Greece, also point to the exchange of basic metal implements, even if primarily through localized networks.

Evolution of Bronze Age weaponry: Weaponry also began to evolve during the Early Bronze Age. Short copper daggers were common in the Aegean, with examples found at sites like Aya Marina on Cyprus. Longer triangular daggers, characterized by a midrib and rivet holes for hafting, also became typical.

Silver-plated bronze sword from Naxos: A notable artifact from this period is a silver-plated bronze sword (more accurately classified as a long dagger) discovered in the Spedos cemetery on Naxos, dating to the Early Cycladic II period (c. 2500-2000 BC). The sophisticated metalworking technique of silver plating suggests a high-status object, likely valuable in elite exchange networks. This indicates that even in the Early Bronze Age, certain finished metallic products possessed significant social value and could have been traded as prestige items. Towards the end of this period, early forms of swords began to emerge from the dagger form.

Early Bronze Age Jewellery: Ornaments crafted from metal also appeared in the Early Bronze Age. Simple jewellery and pins made of copper, gold, silver, and lead have been found at various Aegean sites, including a large collection from Zas Cave on Naxos.

Metal Origins: Copper, Tin, and Lead Isotope Analysis

Sources of Early Bronze Age copper: The copper utilized in these Early Bronze Age finished products originated from various sources, including mines in Anatolia, such as the Kestel mine in the Taurus Mountains, as well as deposits in Cyprus and potentially the Aegean islands. Lead isotope analysis of metal artifacts from Cypriot sites indicates that some copper was indeed sourced from the Aegean and Türkiye. The origins of tin during this period remain less clear, with possibilities including the Near East, Central Asia, or early European sources.

Key Archaeological Sites and Shipwrecks: Dokos Shipwreck and Aegean Trade

Key archaeological sites providing evidence for finished metallic products and trade in this era include Khirbat Hamra Ifdan in Jordan, the Dokos shipwreck, Naxos, and numerous Early Helladic settlements across the Aegean.

Dokos shipwreck evidence: The Dokos shipwreck, dating to around 2200 BC in the Aegean, although primarily known for ceramics, also carried grinding wheels, lead, and obsidian blades. It is currently the oldest known underwater shipwreck discovery, indicating that seafaring and trade were well-established in this region by this time.

Egyptian Maritime Technology: Impact on Mediterranean Trade

Egyptian seagoing ships by 2600 BC: By 2600 BC, the Egyptians had seagoing ships with bipod masts, long oars for steerage and heavy stone anchors. This new technology was to have a massive impact on the existing traders and soon spread to the eastern Mediterranean, Aegean, and Tyrrhenian Seas.

Wadi al-Jarf breakwater: While not in the Mediterranean proper, the oldest known seaport structure (as of 2022), the wadi al-Jarf breakwater in the Gulf of Suez, dating to around 2600 BC, demonstrates the development of sophisticated port facilities during this period.

Egyptian-Levantine trade: Byblos ships: About 2600 BC, the pharaoh Sneferu sent a fleet of forty ships to the Lebanon for a cargo of cedar wood. This cannot have been the first such voyage. Egyptian ships began to ply up the Levantine coast, at least as far as Byblos. A ‘special relationship’ developed between Byblos and Egypt as early as 2686 BC. Byblos became the focus of exotic goods from the north and east and, most importantly, wine. Egyptian gold ensured that much of these exotica arrived in Egypt. This small coastal town is mentioned many times in Egyptian records and was even accorded a special role in Egyptian cosmology. The ships engaged in this Levantine trade became known as ‘Byblos ships’.

Coastal Settlements and Trade Hubs: Troy, Lerna, and Manika

Early coastal trade settlements: About the same time as the Naxos long boats, discussed in the previous article, (‘Neolithic Sea Voyages’), were plying their trade, the first settlements situated at nodal points on the coasts where marine routes converged on land-based networks, began to appear. Troy, guarding the Dardanelles, was the first about 2550 BC. Another cropped up at Lerna on the north shore of the Argolid. The famous ´House of Tiles´ was built between 2700 and 2200 BC. Signs of the trade by now passing through Lerna are shown by the quantity of clay seals found at the site. Manika, overlooking the sea between Attica and the island of Euboea, is notable for its size and the evidence of a well-organized society with trade connections to other regions.

Expansion of Trade Networks: Melian Obsidian and Tin Sources

Melian obsidian trade: The expansion of trade networks during the Early Bronze Age is also evident in the continued trade of Melian obsidian.

Debate on early tin trade: Furthermore, there is ongoing scholarly debate regarding the possibility of early trade routes for tin from Cornwall, Brittany, or Galicia to Crete, potentially even earlier than the generally accepted dates for tin extraction and export from these regions.

The presence of early tin-bronze objects in Crete around 2600 BC, despite the absence of local tin sources, suggests that long-distance procurement of this metal was already taking place.

These various lines of evidence indicate that the Early Bronze Age marked a significant step towards more organized and long-distance maritime trade, driven by the increasing demand for metals and other valuable commodities. The emergence of more substantial vessels capable of longer voyages, as suggested by the Dokos shipwreck, facilitated this expansion of trade networks across the Mediterranean.

Early Trans-Gibraltar Contact: Evidence from Oued Beht

Evidence of Neolithic trans-Gibraltar contact: Meanwhile, at the western end of the Mediterranean Sea, evidence is mounting that, sometime before 3400 BC, Neolithic people were communicating across the Gibraltar Strait between Iberia and north Africa. Although long suspected and speculated, this obvious, short range sea passage, never out of sight of land, has not yet been sufficiently proved.

Oued Beht archaeological discoveries: Recent excavations and analysis of artefacts found at Oued Beht in the Maghreb in Morocco have re-sparked interest in this route. Oued Beht is dealt with more fully in the preceding article, ‘Neolithic Maritime Networks’.

The farming community at Oued Beht dates from about 3400 BC to 2900 BC. Those people had the full Neolithic package, barley, wheat, peas and goats, sheep, pigs and cattle, mirroring the package found on the northern shores of the Strait, in Iberia. Furthermore, their pottery style was remarkably similar to that of the Perdigoes (southern Portugal) and La Loma (near Granada) copper age sites in Iberia, as was the silo technology they used to store grain.

Iberian copper age connections: At the copper age sites of Valencina de la Concepción, near Seville in Spain, and Los Millares near Almeria, north African ivory and ostrich shell artefacts have been identified. These had first reached Iberia during the 3rd Millennium BC. From the same period, a lone menhir near Tangier, and slightly later dolmens in the Maghreb, remind us of megalithic burial practices on the Iberian Peninsula.

Genetic connection: Finally, over the last few years, genetic analysis has revealed a southern Iberian population of local hunter-gatherers, Neolithic Iberian farmers and, crucially, Saharan pastoralists. Reinforcing this research, an individual of African descent was buried at the late copper age site of Camino de las Yeseras in the central Iberian massif about 500 kilometres from the sea.

The Middle Bronze Age: Intensification of Maritime Exchange (2000 BC - 1600 BC): The Rise of Trading

Bronze Age swords

The Middle Bronze Age witnessed a further intensification of maritime exchange in the Mediterranean, characterized by the growth of strategically important harbour towns and an increase in the volume and variety of traded goods.

Harbor Town Development: Key Trading Centres and Urban Growth

Strategic importance of Levantine harbour towns: Harbour towns in the Levant, particularly in Cilicia and the Amuq Plain in southern Anatolia, played a pivotal role in the development of urban centres by serving as crucial links between maritime and inland trade routes.

Increased maritime traffic and commerce: The increasing number of harbour town settlements during this period underscores the growing importance of maritime traffic for regional and interregional commerce.

Essential Commodities Trade: Timber and Metals

Demand for long wooden planks in construction: Archaeological evidence from this era reveals a significant trade in essential commodities. The demand for long wooden planks used in the roofing and timber-framing of mudbrick architecture, as seen at sites like Tell Atchana (Alalakh), suggests a reliance on external sources of timber and the potential development of specialized ports for its handling.

Kinet Höyük's role in resource shipping: The harbour town of Kinet Höyük's strategic location between the rich timber and metal resources of the Taurus and Amanus mountains likely contributed to its importance in shipping these materials to other parts of the Levant.

Long-distance metal trade from Kültepe: Texts from Kültepe indicate long-distance trade in metals such as tin and silver.

Weaponry Evolution and Trade: Levantine Influences

Development of longer swords and spearheads: Weaponry continued its development during the Middle Bronze Age. Longer swords, such as the Aegean "rapier" types designed for thrusting, became more common. Spearheads also evolved into more elaborate forms.

Levantine weapon types in Egypt: Notably, evidence from Egypt indicates the presence of Levantine weapon types, including ribbed daggers, socketed spearheads, and fenestrated axes, during the 11th Dynasty and throughout the Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period.

Cyprus and Levantine Maritime Contacts: After about 2000 BC, harbour towns in the Levant, particularly in Cilicia and the Amuq Plain in Anatolia, played a pivotal role in the development of urban centres by serving as crucial links between maritime and inland trade routes. The presence of Cypriot White Painted V pottery at Tell Tweini in Syria, indicates maritime contacts between the Levant and Cyprus during this period.

International Networks: Levant, Aegean, and Egypt Connections

Established international trade networks: Historical records and archaeological findings suggest that international networks linking the Levant, the Aegean, and Egypt were well-established by this time, facilitating Middle Bronze Age international trade.

Key Archaeological Sites: Insights into Middle Bronze Age Trade

Several key archaeological sites offer valuable insights into the maritime trade of the Middle Bronze Age.

Kültepe-Kanesh: Old Assyrian trading centre: Kültepe-Kanesh, in central Anatolia, served as a significant Old Assyrian trading centre with connections to northern Levantine maritime centres, highlighting the integration of inland and coastal trade networks.

Alalakh (Tell Atchana): Organized political and economic structures: Alalakh, a coastal city in southern Türkiye near the border with Syria, shows evidence of large-scale public buildings and fortification systems, indicating organized political and economic structures capable of acquiring non-local resources through trade.

Kinet Höyük: Facilitating timber and metal movement: Kinet Höyük's strategic location, on the shores of the far northeastern Mediterranean, facilitated the movement of timber and metals. Shipwrecks: Pseira and Kumluca evidence: Shipwrecks from this period, such as the Pseira shipwreck (1725 – 1675 BC) which yielded Minoan ceramics, and the Kumluca shipwreck (1600 - 1500 BC) carrying a cargo of copper ingots, further attest to the active maritime trade within the Aegean and the broader Eastern Mediterranean.

Cetina Culture and Adriatic Trade: Explaining Regional Similarities

Cetina people's influence: It was not until after the ‘Cold War’ ended in 1991 AD that a long-standing mystery was solved. Similarities between pottery, cremations and figurines found in Malta, Sicily and western Greece, all dated to the late 3rd millennium BC, could not be traced to a source. Whilst the dispersal of an eclectic mix of trade goods including necklaces of faience, ostrich egg and fish bone implements, copper daggers and axes, and bossed bone plaques that were carved in Sicily and found as far afield as Malta, Lerna and Troy, could not be explained.

Cetina's role in regional trade: The Cetina people were based near the mouth of a river with the same name that runs from the metalliferous hinterland into the Adriatic near the city of Split, within view of a spread of islands extending towards southern Italy. They appeared around 2300 BC and rapidly extended their influence throughout the Adriatic, into southern Greece and Italy and out into the Mediterranean as far as Sicily and Malta. They brought Pantellerian obsidian to Gozo and copper daggers and axes to Tarxien on Malta where they were found in cremation urns.

Cetinian boat depictions and trade catalysts:
It is possible that there is a depiction of the Cetinian boats in the early engravings at the temple in Tarxien, where a record of the type of boat seen off the island from prehistoric times to the modern day are recorded for posterity in the form of ‘ship graffiti’ by unknown artists. The Cetina traders, in their small coastal craft, were the catalysts that brought together a diffuse range of products in diverse locations whose presence had proved not a little mysterious, and helped explain similarities in pottery, cremations and figurines throughout the region.

Cetina and Aegean network overlap: To the east, in the Gulf of Corinth, the Cetinian network overlapped with the, by now fading, Aegean networks which could explain the trail of bossed bone plaques that had been carved on Sicily and subsequently transported to Tarxian and as far east as Troy and Lerna.

Conclusion: Growth of Maritime Trade and Complex Networks during the Middle Bronze Age

The Middle Bronze Age, therefore, represents a period of significant growth in maritime trade, with the emergence of key trading centres and increasingly complex networks facilitating the exchange of essential resources and manufactured goods across the Mediterranean.

The Late Bronze Age: A Flourishing of International Trade (1600 BC - 1200 BC)

The Late Bronze Age in the Mediterranean is often characterized as an "international" period, witnessing an unprecedented flourishing of maritime trade and cultural interconnectedness.

International Networks: Levant, Aegean, and Egyptian Connections

Flourishing maritime trade in the Late Bronze Age: The era witnessed intensive socio-political development, connectivity, and long-distance mobility were hallmarks of this era, particularly in the eastern Mediterranean.

Established international networks linking major powers: Well-established international networks linked the Levant, the Aegean, and Egypt, fostering a vibrant exchange of goods, ideas, and people.

Egyptian involvement in Late Bronze Age trade: By the time of the New Kingdom, about 1570 BC, Egypt was ‘plugged into’ the networks operating in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Aegean, trading with Cyprus, Crete, the Aegean islands and probably, mainland Greece.

Egyptian trade commodities: The Egyptians received wood, wines, oils, resins, silver, copper, and cattle in exchange for gold, linens, papyrus paper, leather goods, and grains.

Levantine Coastal Cities: Vital Emporia of Trade

Levantine coastal cities as international trade hubs: Levantine coastal cities emerged as vital emporia for international exchange, connecting inland centres with the broader maritime trade involving Cyprus and the Aegean.

Ugarit's role in Late Bronze Age trade: Ugarit in northern Syria was a major port throughout the Late Bronze Age when it ruled a trade-based coastal kingdom, trading with Egypt, Cyprus, the Aegean (primarily Crete), Syria, the Hittites, cities of the Levant (including Ashkelon), and much of the eastern Mediterranean.

Other key Levantine trading cities

Tell Abu Hawam in Israel flourished during the 14th and 13th centuries BC.

Sarepta on the Lebanese coast was a significant trading city throughout the Late Bronze Age and had strong connections with the Aegean.

Akka, or Acre as it is known today, became an important port city from the beginning of the second millennium BC onwards.

Tel Nami is located on the southern Carmel coast on a rocky promontory, about 15 kilometres south of modern Haifa. During the 13th century BC, the city had strong trading ties with Egypt and Cyprus.

All engaged in extensive maritime commerce.

Shipwreck Discoveries: Evidence of Late Bronze Age Maritime Trade

Uluburun shipwreck: A treasure trove of multicultural goods: The Uluburun shipwreck (1335 - 1305 BC), discovered off the coast of Türkiye, is an unparalleled archaeological find, containing a diverse cargo originating from various cultures. This included raw materials such as copper and tin ingots, glass ingots, ivory, as well as finished goods like Canaanite jars filled with resin and olives, Mycenaean and Cypriot pottery, and even a gold scarab of the Egyptian pharaoh Nefertiti.

The sheer variety of the cargo underscores the vast scale and diversity of Late Bronze Age trade and the multicultural nature of seafaring during this time.

Cape Gelidonya shipwreck: Metal trade evidence: The Cape Gelidonya shipwreck (c. 1200 BC), also off the coast of Türkiye, primarily contained copper and tin ingots, along with tools and personal belongings of Canaanite or Syrian origin, suggesting a merchant ship involved in the metal trade.

Point Iria and Modi Island shipwrecks: Later shipwrecks like the Point Iria (c. 1200 BC) and Modi Island (c. 1200 BC) wrecks contained significant assemblages of pottery, including Mycenaean ceramics, further highlighting the extensive maritime connections in the Aegean.

Key Cultures in Late Bronze Age Maritime Trade

Minoan trade connections: The Minoans, based on Crete, had been active traders earlier in the Bronze Age, and their connections with regions like Ugarit for tin continued into the Late Bronze Age.

Cypriot role in pottery distribution: The Cypriots also played a crucial role, with Cypriot pottery being widely distributed in the Levant. Levantine coastal cities such as Ugarit, Tell Abu Hawam, Sarepta, Akko, and Tel Nami emerged as vital emporia for international exchange, connecting inland centres with the broader maritime trade involving Cyprus and the Aegean.

Mycenaean expansion and trade networks: The Mycenaeans, based in mainland Greece, gradually took over the areas of influence enjoyed by the Minoans, leading to their cultural and economic expansion throughout the Mediterranean.

Ships from Mycenae, not necessarily Mycenaean ships, were actively sailing westward from around 1400 BC, establishing trading posts in regions such as southern Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, and southern Iberia. The widespread discovery of Mycenaean pottery in the Levant and Egypt attests to their extensive trade networks in the eastern Mediterranean.

Traded Goods: Raw Materials, Luxury Items, and Agricultural Produce

Raw material trade in the Late Bronze Age: Raw materials such as copper, tin, gold, silver, ivory, glass ingots, timber, and resin were crucial commodities.

Luxury item trade: Luxury items, including finely carved metal bowls, faience drinking cups, ivory cosmetic boxes, gold jewellery, ostrich eggs, and precious metals, were highly sought after by elites.

Agricultural produce trade: Agricultural produce like wine, olive oil, and grain were also important components of trade.

Manufactured goods trade: Manufactured goods such as pottery (Mycenaean, Cypriot, Canaanite), tools, weapons, and likely textiles were exchanged across the eastern Mediterranean.

Artifact Distribution: Insights into Trade Routes

The distribution patterns of specific artifact types provide valuable insights into the extent and direction of these trade routes.

Mycenaean pottery distribution: Mycenaean pottery has been found not only extensively in the Levant (at sites like Ugarit, Tell Abu Hawam, and Sarepta) and Egypt but also westward in southern Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, and southern Iberia, indicating well-established sea lanes connecting these regions.

Cypriot pottery distribution: Cypriot pottery is commonly found in the Levant, further highlighting the close maritime ties between these areas.

Canaanite jar distribution: Canaanite jars, used for transporting bulk commodities, have been discovered on shipwrecks and at various sites across the Mediterranean.

Naue II sword distribution: The export of Naue II swords from Europe to the Aegean and Ugarit around 1200 BC demonstrates the long-range exchange of advanced weaponry towards the end of the Bronze Age.

Late Bronze Age in Sicily: Cultural Shifts and Mycenaean Influence

The Late Bronze Age in Sicily was a period of significant change and cultural interaction.

Shift to fortified hilltop settlements: Around the 13th century BC, a shift occurred, with coastal settlements giving way to fortified, less accessible hilltop locations like Pantalica, Montagna di Caltagirone, Dessueri, Sabucina, and later, Cassibile. This suggests a period of instability and a need for defence, possibly initiated by the increase in ‘foreign’ ships appearing offshore.

Mycenaean influence in Sicily: A Mycenaean-influenced culture persisted in Sicily, with the Anaktoron exhibiting megalithic construction reminiscent of Mycenaean palaces.

Arrival of the Sicels: Historical accounts, notably from Hellanicus of Mytilene and Fylistus of Syracuse, place the arrival of the Sicels from the Italian peninsula between the 13th and 12th centuries BCE. However, archaeological evidence doesn't fully support an immediate Italic presence. Instead, a monumental structure, the Anaktoron (or "prince's palace"), dating to this period, exhibits megalithic construction reminiscent of Mycenaean palaces. Notably, it lacks the cremation burial practices common in the Italian peninsula at the time. The Sicels' arrival and displacement of the Sicanians, the island's long-established inhabitants, likely occurred later.

Pantalica cultural phases The era is conventionally divided into four phases, named after Pantalica, a plateau near Syracuse with extensive necropolises. The first phase, Pantalica North (13th-11th centuries BCE), features the aforementioned Anaktoron and the introduction of wheel-thrown, red, burnished pottery with high tubular feet, echoing earlier Thapsos styles. Mycenaean influence is evident in personal items and jewellery, and bronze was widely used. The fibula, a garment pin, appears in simple or violin-bow shapes.

Late Bronze Age in Sardinia: Nuragic Civilization and Trade

The Late Bronze Age in Sardinia was a dynamic period marked by the flourishing of the Nuragic civilization and increasing interaction with other Mediterranean cultures.

Nuragic civilization and Nuraghe construction: The most iconic feature of this period is the proliferation of nuraghe. These massive, fortified towers, of which thousands still dot the Sardinian landscape, likely served various purposes – defensive strongholds, symbols of power, and perhaps even ritual centres. The level of sophistication in their construction suggests a complex society with skilled builders and organized labour. The first nuraghe appeared early in the 2nd millennium BC. It may not be a coincidence that the building of the nuraghe occurred at a time when maritime trade with the east was intensifying, with a consequent increase in ‘foreign’ vessels making landfall in Sardinia.

Nuragic society and trade: While the exact nature of Nuragic society is still debated, evidence suggests a hierarchical structure with a warrior elite. Settlements grew around the nuraghe, indicating a degree of social and economic organization.

In the second half of the 2nd millennium BC, archaeological studies have proved the increasing size of the settlements built around some of these structures, which were often located at the summit of hills. Perhaps for protection reasons, new towers were added to the original ones, connected by walls provided with slits forming a ‘complex nuraghe’. It is interesting that the move to hilltops and the construction of complex nuraghe coincides with the turmoil being experienced in the Middle East. Perhaps news of the Bronze Age collapse had spread, via the traders bringing artefacts from the Aegean, and the local Sardinians perceived a threat to their way of life.

Some scholars theorize that Sardinia may have been involved in the movements of the Sea Peoples, a mysterious group that disrupted the Eastern Mediterranean around this time. While evidence is circumstantial, it's possible that Sardinian warriors participated in these events or that the island served as a refuge for some of these groups.

Trade and exchange were pronounced during this period. Mycenaean pottery and other artifacts found in Sardinia suggest trade connections with the Aegean world.

Nuragic people were skilled metalworkers, producing bronze tools, weapons, and intricate figurines known as "bronzetti." Pottery also flourished, often decorated with geometric patterns.

Sardinian connections to continental Europe: Around 1000 BC, changes begin to appear in the archaeological record. While nuraghe continued to be used, new types of settlements and burial practices emerge. This period, sometimes referred to as the "Late Nuragic" or "Final Bronze Age," shows a transition in material culture and possibly social organization. The evidence suggests that Sardinia now had strong links to the western world, in particular the Atlantic bronze trade.

Sardinia's Role in the International Metal Trade In the Late Bronze Age, Nuragic Sardinia's strategic location and metal resources positioned it as a key player in the international metal trade. Nuragic communities actively engaged in maritime enterprises, as evidenced by the presence of Nuragic pottery at sites across the Mediterranean, from Cannatello (Sicily) to Hala Sultan Tekke (Cyprus).

The copper trade was a vital component of this network. Lead isotope analyses reveal that while many ox hide ingots found in Sardinia originated from Cypriot ores, others came from Israel, the Timna area, and the Sinai mines. This suggests Cyprus functioned as a collection and redistribution hub, facilitating the flow of copper from the Eastern Mediterranean to Sardinia. Sardinia's role in the tin trade was equally significant. The presence of tin finds and the high tin content in Sardinian bronze artifacts indicate a crucial role in the international tin distribution.

Sardinia does not have any significant tin deposits. The nearest tin would be from Galicia on the Iberian Peninsula that could have made its way down the Portuguese coast, through the Straits of Gibraltar, and up to Provence and Languedoc and from there, to Sardinia.

Two main sea routes likely existed: a southern "international" route connecting Sardinia with Cyprus, and a northern "round trip" route within the Tyrrhenian Sea.

Sardinian Connections to Continental Europe Evidence increasingly suggests that Nuragic communities traded beyond the Mediterranean, extending their reach to continental Europe. Archaeometallurgical studies reveal that metal of Sardinian origin was used in various European locations. Lead isotope analyses of copper and lead finds from Cyprus, as well as artifacts from the Makarska hoard and the Cape Gelidonya shipwreck, point to Sardinian sources.

Furthermore, artifacts from Northern Europe, including sword pommels and knives from Sweden, and sword blades from Denmark and Germany, have isotopic signatures consistent with Sardinian copper ores. The presence of Baltic amber on Sardinia, coupled with the abundant use of tin in Sardinian metallurgy, strengthens the case for long-distance trade with continental Europe.

The Balearic Islands during the late Bronze Age

The Balearic Islands had remained isolated from the rest of the Iberian Peninsula since they had been occupied by an agrarian population between 2500 and 2300 BC. Their agricultural techniques consisted of burning trees and undergrowth and ploughing the cleared ground.

Increased connectivity in the Balearic Islands: The period between 1400 and 1300 BC saw increased connectivity in the Western Mediterranean, bringing new materials and technologies to the islands, evidenced by a dramatic rise in metal artifact weight. This led to the creation of new objects, including swords.

Balearic sword development: A study of Late Bronze Age swords (1000-800 BC) from the Balearic Islands reveals their connection to the wider Mediterranean world. Researchers, led by Laura Perelló Mateo, analysed 18 swords, mostly of the "Son Oms" type, using advanced techniques.

While inspired by continental European designs, Balearic swords developed unique features (solid grips, thin blades, rhomboidal cross-section) and were made using sophisticated techniques like lost-wax casting with ternary bronze alloys. Chemical and isotopic analyses showed that the copper used came primarily from Linares (mainland Spain), with other sources in Menorca, Mallorca, and Sardinia, the latter providing a link to the wider Mediterranean maritime networks. The study demonstrates a fusion of local traditions and external influences in the Balearic sword designs.

Talayot construction: By about 1000 BC, fertile land on the islands was at a premium and the first talayots appear. They have been variously identified as ceremonial centres or boundary markers and continued in use until the arrival of the Phoenicians.

Late Bronze Age in North Africa: Kach Kouch and Iberian Links

Kach Kouch settlement in North Africa: In 1982, a joint Moroccan – Spanish team discovered a settlement in the Maghreb. Kach Kouch is located in north-west Morocco, in Tétouan Province. It sits on top of a limestone outcrop overlooking the lower Oued Laou Valley. The site is situated on the Mediterranean flank of the Strait of Gibraltar, approximately 10km west from the current coastline. The site has three occupation phases, 2200 BC to 2000 BC (KK1), 1300 – 900 BC (KK2) and the 8th and 7th centuries BC (KK3).

Late bronze age metallurgy in North Africa: The material finds at Kach Kouch indicating links with the Iberian Peninsula include: the temporal overlap with Iberian Copper/Bronze Age and the presence of similar cist burials in the broader region during KK1; a tin bronze fragment during KK2, which aligns with Late Bronze Age metallurgy in the western Mediterranean; and, most prominently during KK3, the presence of wheel-made Phoenician amphorae and red-slipped pottery types with established chronologies and parallels in southern Iberia.

Mapping Bronze Age Maritime Trade Routes: Eastern and Western Mediterranean Networks

By the end of the Bronze Age, we can discern two distinct maritime trading areas, each containing maritime trading networks. One covering the central and eastern Mediterranean, basically from Sardinia and all points east, the other covering the western Mediterranean west of Sardinia.

Eastern Mediterranean Trade Networks: Production Centres and Commercial Hubs

Eastern Mediterranean trading area overview: The eastern area had developed two essential components for an efficient international trading network, production centres for the manufacture of finished goods, and commercial hubs that provided warehousing and freight forwarding services.

Levantine and Anatolian commercial hubs: Commercial hubs on the mainland of the Levant, and Anatolia, connected to the land-based trading routes.

Eastern influence on trade: The influences within this area came primarily from the east.

Western Mediterranean Trade Networks: Coastal Trade and Overland Links

Western Mediterranean trading area overview: The western area, including Southern France, the Iberian Peninsula, and North Africa west of Tunisia, was more influenced by overland links to the north, Galicia, Brittany and Britain.

Limited production centres and local coastal trade: This area had less well-developed production centres and its maritime trade continued to be dominated by local coastal craft.

Early maritime connections to Sardinia and Sicily: The area saw the emergence of tentative maritime connections linking to Sardinia and then to Sicily.

Production centres in the Eastern Area: Metalworking and Manufacturing

Evidence of specialized metalworking centres: Within the eastern area, archaeological evidence indicates the presence of specialized metalworking centres.

Egyptian production influenced by Levantine designs: In Egypt, at Tell el-Dab'a, the discovery of stone moulds for Levantine-style weapons indicates local production influenced by foreign designs.

Jordanian copper production at Khirbat Hamra Ifdan: Khirbat Hamra Ifdan in Jordan served as an important centre for Early Bronze Age copper production.

Cypriot copper production and working: Cyprus emerged as a major hub for copper production and working, especially during the Late Bronze Age, with sites like Hala Sultan Tekke, Apliki, Enkomi, Kition, and Athienou revealing evidence of extensive smelting activities, the creation of moulds, and the accumulation of slag.

Cretan ingot storage and metalworking: Crete, with sites such as Mochlos, Tylissos, Hagia Triada, and Kato Zakro, shows evidence of ingot storage and potential metalworking.

Mycenaean metal workshops and recycling: On the Greek mainland, Mycenae has yielded archaeological remains suggesting the presence of metal workshops and metal recycling activities.

Nuragic metalworking in Sardinia: On Sardinia, the Nuragic people were skilled metal workers, one of the main metal producers in Europe, producing a range of bronze objects from swords, daggers and axes to fine jewellery, the famous Sardinian bronzetti, and votive boats.

Commercial hubs linking to overland routes in the Eastern Mediterranean

Eastern Mediterranean commercial hub locations: Finished goods arrived at commercial hubs such as Troy in Anatolia and Lerna in Greece, Ugarit in northern Syria, Tell Abu Hawam in Israel, Sarepta on the Lebanese coast, Akka, or Acre as it is known today, and Tel Nami located on the southern Carmel coast.

International Mediterranean Sea Trading Networks: Key Trade Corridors

Eastern Mediterranean trade routes: Well-established routes linked the Levant, Cyprus, Egypt, and Anatolia, facilitating the exchange of a wide range of goods, with Cyprus serving as the main commercial hub.

Aegean Sea trade connections: The Aegean Sea was connected to mainland Greece, the Aegean islands, and the Anatolian coast, with Crete acting as an influential commercial hub.

Adriatic and Tyrrhenian Sea trade: The Adriatic, though less researched, had the Cetinian network, and Sicily served as a commercial hub linking the Adriatic to the Tyrrhenian Sea and Crete.

Sardinian commercial hub role: On the western edge of the eastern area, Sardinia manufactured products locally and acted as a commercial hub linking to Sicily, North Africa, and potentially the Iberian coastal trade.

Cultural Exchange and the Impact of Bronze Age Maritime Trade

Maritime trade as a catalyst for cultural exchange: Maritime trade in the Mediterranean between 5500 BC and 1200 BC was not only an economic activity but also a significant catalyst for cultural exchange between different societies.

Mycenaean artistic influence in Europe: During the Late Bronze Age, the adoption of Mycenaean artistic styles in temperate Europe demonstrates the cultural influence of trade networks.

"International style" luxury objects: The presence of "international style" luxury objects, blending Near Eastern, Egyptian, Levantine, and Aegean elements, highlights cultural fusion.

Diffusion of weighing technology: The spread of weighing technology from Mesopotamia across the Mediterranean indicates the far-reaching impact of trade on technological diffusion.

Peak of Late Bronze Age Maritime Trade

The Late Bronze Age represents the peak of maritime trade in the Mediterranean, characterized by longer distance voyages, a wide array of traded goods, and the active participation of numerous interconnected cultures.

The Mediterranean Sea as a whole is still divided between east and west, the 'join' being Sardinia.

It would be the Phoenicians, after the demise of the Bronze Age empires in the early 1st millennium BC, that connected the two into a pans Mediterranean network.

References

General Mediterranean Bronze Age Trade and Networks:
Cline, Eric H. 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed. Princeton University Press, 2014. (Addresses the complex interconnectedness of Bronze Age civilizations and the collapse, including trade routes and networks.)

Sherratt, Andrew, and Susan Sherratt. The Mediterranean at the Middle Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press, 1993. (Explores the dynamics of trade and exchange during the Middle Bronze Age, with a focus on material culture distribution.)

Horden, Peregrine, and Nicholas Purcell. The Corrupting Sea: A Study of Mediterranean History. Blackwell Publishers, 2000. (A comprehensive study of the Mediterranean that emphasizes the importance of maritime connectivity and long-term patterns of exchange.)

Broodbank, Cyprian. The Making of the Middle Sea: A History of the Mediterranean from the Beginning to the Second Century AD. Thames & Hudson, 2013. (Covers the long-term development of Mediterranean maritime interactions, including the Bronze Age.)

Metallurgy and the Development of Bronze:
Budd, Paul, and Timothy Taylor. The Faerie Thorn: A Study of Bronze Age Metalworking Techniques and Social Organisation. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 14.2 (1995): 133-153. (Discusses the social and technological aspects of Bronze Age metallurgy.)

Roberts, B. W. Europe's First Metallurgists. Oxford University Press, 2009. (Provides an overview of the development of metallurgy in Europe, including the early Bronze Age.)

Radivojevi?, Miljana, et al. "The earliest tin artefact on record." Antiquity 87.338 (2013): 1050-1064. (Details the early tin-bronze find in Serbia, supporting the assertion of early metallurgical development.)

Specific Trade Routes and Networks:
Knapp, A. Bernard. The History and Archaeology of the Bronze Age Eastern Mediterranean. Equinox, 2011. (Provides detailed information on trade networks in the eastern Mediterranean, including Egyptian and Minoan interactions.)

Dickinson, Oliver. The Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press, 1994. (Focuses on the Aegean region, including Minoan and Mycenaean trade.)

Aubet, Maria Eugenia. The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade. Cambridge University Press, 1993. (Covers the Phoenician expansion and trade networks, including their role after the Bronze Age collapse.)

Cunliffe, Barry. Facing the Ocean: The Atlantic and Its Peoples, 8000 BC-AD 1500. Oxford University Press, 2001. (Explores the Atlantic Bronze Age and the connections between western European regions.)

Social and Economic Dynamics:
Liverani, Mario. Uruk: The First City. Equinox, 2006. (Provides insights into the development of early urban centers and social hierarchies in Mesopotamia.)

Van de Mieroop, Marc. A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000-323 BC. Blackwell Publishing, 2004. (Covers the social and economic developments in the Near East, including the rise of elites and trade.)

Sherratt, Andrew. "Plough and Pastoralism: Mediterranean Europe in the Second and First Millennia B.C." Past & Present 119 (1988): 3-32. (Discusses the economic transformations in the Mediterranean during the Bronze Age.)

Regarding the Kanesh and Ugarit Texts:
Veenhof, Klaas R. The Old Assyrian List of Year Eponyms from Karum Kanish. Turkish Historical Society, 2003. (Provides information about the Kanesh Archives.)

Pardee, Dennis. Ugaritic Texts and Grammar in the Light of Discoveries from Ugarit-Ras Shamra. Society of Biblical Literature, 2012. (Covers the Ugarit texts, which are crucial for understanding trade and social structures in the Late Bronze Age.)

Early Harbor Infrastructure and Coastal Adaptations:
Galili, Ehud, and Baruch Rosen. "Submerged Prehistoric Settlements off the Carmel Coast of Israel." Submerged Landscapes of the European Continental Shelf: Quaternary Sea-Level Changes and Human Adaptation. Edited by N. C. Flemming. Blackwell Publishing, 2004. (This type of research covers the submerged prehistoric settlements and coastal adaptations, which is the type of study that would cover the Hreiz findings.)

Morhange, Christophe, et al. "Rapid sea-level rise and human societies in the Mediterranean Late Holocene." Quaternary Science Reviews 118 (2015): 182-202. (This study covers sea level rise and human adaptions, and thus the environment that the Hreiz seawall was built in.)

Metal Trade Origins and Metallurgical Exchange:
Roberts, B. W. Europe's First Metallurgists. Oxford University Press, 2009. (Covers the development of metallurgy in Europe, including early tin-bronze use.)

Yener, K. Aslihan. The Domestication of Metals: The Discovery of the Bronze Age. Brill, 2000. (Explores the early stages of metalworking and trade, including tin and copper.)

Radivojevi?, Miljana, et al. "The earliest tin artefact on record." Antiquity 87.338 (2013): 1050-1064. (Provides details on the early tin-bronze find in Serbia.)

Wagner, G. A., and G. A. Pernicka. Early Bronze Age Tin from Anatolia. Naturwissenschaften 69.8 (1982): 402-403. (Addresses the Anatolian tin sources and their early exploitation.)

Key Archaeological Sites and Metal Production:
Levy, Thomas E., et al. "Early metallurgy, interaction, and social change: excavations at the Chalcolithic site of Shiqmim (Israel) and investigations in the Timna Valley (Israel/Jordan)." Levant 25.1 (1993): 209-262. (This type of work, although dealing with the chalcolithic, deals with the early metal production in the Levant, of which Khirbat Hamra Ifdan is a part of.)

Dickinson, Oliver. The Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press, 1994. (Provides information on metalworking and trade in the Aegean, including the types of artifacts found at sites like Aya Marina and Naxos.)

Phelps, William W. The Neolithic Settlement at Dikili Tash, Greece: Preliminary Report. Journal of Field Archaeology 15.1 (1988): 19-38. (Provides primary information on sites such as Dikili Tash and the artefacts found there.)

Shipwrecks and Maritime Technology:
Phelps, William W., Yannos G. Lolnos, and Costas G. Doumas. The Dokos Shipwreck. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 14.4 (1985): 361-364. (Provides information on the Dokos shipwreck.)

Ward, Cheryl. Sacred and Secular: Ancient Egyptian Ships and Boats. Archaeological Institute of America, 2000. (Covers Egyptian maritime technology and shipbuilding.)

Tallet, Pierre, and Gregory Marouard. "Wadi al-Jarf: An Egyptian Harbor Dating from the Reign of Cheops (4th Dynasty)." Near Eastern Archaeology 77.1 (2014): 4-10. (Details the Wadi al-Jarf breakwater.)

Coastal Settlements and Trade Hubs:
Rutter, Jeremy B. The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Aegean. INSTAP Academic Press, 2003. (Provides comprehensive coverage of Aegean archaeology, including sites like Troy, Lerna, and Manika.)

Manning, Sturt W. The Absolute Chronology of the Aegean Early Bronze Age: Archaeology, Radiocarbon and History. Sheffield Academic Press, 1995. 1 (Deals with the chronologies of the early Bronze age Aegean, important for the dates of the settlements.)

Trans-Gibraltar Contact:
Cunliffe, Barry. Facing the Ocean: The Atlantic and Its Peoples, 8000 BC-AD 1500. Oxford University Press, 2001. (Explores the connections between Iberia and North Africa.)

Diaz-del-Rio, Pedro, and Maria Cruz Fernandez-Castro. Defining the Neolithic of the Iberian Peninsula. Oxford University Press, 2016. (This type of work will contain the most up to date information about the Neolithic of Iberia, and the connections to North Africa.)

Schuhmacher, T. X., et al. "The beginnings of agriculture in North Africa: new insights from the Oued Beht site (Morocco)." Antiquity 95.380 (2021): 887-905. (Provides information about the Oued Beht site.)

General Late Bronze Age Mediterranean Trade and Interconnectedness:
Cline, Eric H. 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed. Princeton University Press, 2014. (This book offers a comprehensive look at the interconnectedness of Late Bronze Age civilizations and the factors leading to their collapse, including trade.)

Sherratt, Andrew, and Susan Sherratt. The Mediterranean at the Middle Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press, 1993. (While focusing on the Middle Bronze Age, it provides a foundation for understanding the development of trade networks that intensified in the Late Bronze Age.)

Knapp, A. Bernard. The History and Archaeology of the Bronze Age Eastern Mediterranean. Equinox, 2011. (This work offers detailed insights into the Late Bronze Age trade networks in the eastern Mediterranean.)

Horden, Peregrine, and Nicholas Purcell. The Corrupting Sea: A Study of Mediterranean History. Blackwell Publishers, 2000. (This provides a long term view of Mediterranean maritime history, giving context to the Late Bronze Age.)

Levantine Trade and Coastal Cities:
Yon, Marguerite. The City of Ugarit at Tell Ras Shamra. Eisenbrauns, 2006. (Provides detailed information about Ugarit's role as a major trading center.)

Artzy, Michal. Nomads of the Sea: Identity, Migration, and the Archaeology of the Bronze Age Transition. Peeters Publishers, 2011. (This work discusses the coastal trade centers of the Levant and their roles in the Late Bronze age.)

Shipwreck Discoveries:
Bass, George F. Cape Gelidonya: A Bronze Age Shipwreck. American Philosophical Society, 1967. (A foundational work on the Cape Gelidonya shipwreck.)

Pulak, Cemal. The Uluburun Shipwreck: An Overview. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 27.2 (1998): 188-224. (A key resource on the Uluburun shipwreck.)

Lolos, Yannos G. The 1994 Excavation at Point Iria in the Gulf of Argos: A Preliminary Report. Hesperia 68.3 (1999): 343-381. (Provides information on the Point Iria shipwreck.)

Mycenaean and Minoan Trade:
Dickinson, Oliver. The Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press, 1994. (Provides comprehensive coverage of Mycenaean and Minoan trade.)

Shelmerdine, Cynthia W. The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press, 2008. (A collection of essays providing a broad overview of the Aegean Bronze Age, including trade.)

Late Bronze Age in Sicily, Sardinia, and the Balearic Islands:
Leighton, Robert. Sicily Before History: An Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age. Cornell University Press, 1999. 1 (Provides archaeological context for the Late Bronze Age in Sicily.)

Trump, David H. Sardinia: Nuragic Civilization. Aris & Phillips, 1990. (A key resource on the Nuragic civilization and its role in the Late Bronze Age.)

Perelló Mateo, Laura, et al. "Late Bronze Age Swords from the Balearic Islands: A Multidisciplinary Approach." Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 35 (2021): 102728. (This article analyses the Swords found in the Balearic islands, and provides information regarding the trade connections.)

Late Bronze Age in North Africa:
Jodin, André. Mogador: Comptoir Phénicien du Maroc Atlantique. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1966. (While focusing on Phoenician Mogador, it provides context for trade in North Africa.)

Schuhmacher, T. X., et al. "The beginnings of agriculture in North Africa: new insights from the Oued Beht site (Morocco)." Antiquity 95.380 (2021): 887-905. (While this work is focused on the Neolithic, it provides valuable context for the region, and its trade connections.)

Ramón Torres, J. La cerámica fenicio-púnica de la Península Ibérica. Universidad de Barcelona, 1995. (This work provides information on the spread of Phoenician pottery, and thus trade, into North Africa.)

General Bronze Age Maritime Trade and Networks:
Cline, Eric H. 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed. Princeton University Press, 2014. (Provides context for the interconnectedness of Bronze Age trade networks.)

Horden, Peregrine, and Nicholas Purcell. The Corrupting Sea: A Study of Mediterranean History. Blackwell Publishers, 2000. (Offers a broad perspective on Mediterranean maritime interactions.)

Knapp, A. Bernard. The History and Archaeology of the Bronze Age Eastern Mediterranean. Equinox, 2011. (Details trade networks in the eastern Mediterranean.)

Broodbank, Cyprian. The Making of the Middle Sea: A History of the Mediterranean from the Beginning to the Second Century AD. Thames & Hudson, 2013. (Covers the long-term development of Mediterranean maritime interactions, including the Bronze Age.)

Eastern Mediterranean Production Centers and Metalworking:
Yener, K. Aslihan. The Domestication of Metals: The Discovery of the Bronze Age. Brill, 2000. (Explores the early stages of metalworking and trade.)

Levy, Thomas E., et al. "Early metallurgy, interaction, and social change: excavations at the Chalcolithic site of Shiqmim (Israel) and investigations in the Timna Valley (Israel/Jordan)." Levant 25.1 (1993): 209-262. (Although dealing with the chalcolithic, deals with the early metal production in the Levant, of which Khirbat Hamra Ifdan is a part of.)

Gale, N. H. "Copper Ox-Hide Ingots: Their Origin and Their Place in the Bronze Age Mediterranean." In Sardinia in the Mediterranean: A Footprint in the Sea, edited by Miriam S. Balmuth. Sheffield Academic Press, 1984. (Discusses the distribution of copper ingots, and where they were produced.)

Muhly, James D. The Copper Ox-Hide Ingots and the Bronze Age Mediterranean. Institute for Aegean Prehistory Academic Press, 2007. (Further information about the copper ingots, and their distribution.)

Dickinson, Oliver. The Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press, 1994. (Provides information on metalworking and trade in the Aegean, including Crete and Mycenae.)

Trump, David H. Sardinia: Nuragic Civilization. Aris & Phillips, 1990. (Provides information about Nuragic metalworking.)

Eastern Mediterranean Commercial Hubs and Trade Routes:
Yon, Marguerite. The City of Ugarit at Tell Ras Shamra. Eisenbrauns, 2006. (Details Ugarit's role as a trading hub.)

Artzy, Michal. Nomads of the Sea: Identity, Migration, and the Archaeology of the Bronze Age Transition. Peeters Publishers, 2011. (Discusses Levantine coastal trade centers.)

Rutter, Jeremy B. The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Aegean. INSTAP Academic Press, 2003. (Provides comprehensive coverage of Aegean archaeology, including trade networks.)

Cultural Exchange and the Impact of Maritime Trade:

Sherratt, Andrew, and Susan Sherratt. "The Growth of the Mediterranean Economy in the Early First Millennium BC." World Archaeology 24.3 (1993): 361-378. (Discusses the impact of trade on cultural exchange.) Frankenstein, Susan. "The Phoenicians and the Economy of the Ninth-Sixth Centuries B.C.: A Reappraisal." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 45 (1979): 65-100. (Although dealing with the iron age, discusses the spread of technologies via trading networks.)

Sherratt, Andrew. "Plough and Pastoralism: Mediterranean Europe in the Second and First Millennia B.C." Past & Present 119 (1988): 3-32. (Discusses the economic transformations in the Mediterranean during the Bronze Age.)

Western Mediterranean Trade and Connections:
Cunliffe, Barry. Facing the Ocean: The Atlantic and Its Peoples, 8000 BC-AD 1500. Oxford University Press, 2001. (Explores the connections between western European regions.)

Diaz-del-Rio, Pedro, and Maria Cruz Fernandez-Castro. Defining the Neolithic of the Iberian Peninsula. Oxford University Press, 2016. (Contains some of the most up to date information about the Neolithic of Iberia, and the connections to North Africa.)