Phoenician Expansion during the Iron Age

The Phoenicians during and after the bronze age collapse

Explore the complex history of the Middle East during the Phoenician expansion, including the rise and fall of Assyrian power, the resilience of Phoenician cities, and the burgeoning influence of the Greeks.

By Nick Nutter on 2025-02-8 | Last Updated 2025-02-8 | Phoenician Expansion during the Iron Age

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Bronze Age Collapse

Canaanite Cities Gain Independence

The progression of the Phoenician expansion into the western Mediterranean must be set against the backcloth of events at home in the Levant.

The collapse of the bronze age civilisations in the Middle East, and the withdrawal of Egyptian domination of Syria allowed the Canaanite cities to attain independence after about 1170 BC.

Rise of Assyria 900 to 550 BC

Assyrian Empire c 700 BC

In the 9th century BC, this independence came to an end with the advancement of the Assyrian Empire. In 868 BC, Ashurnasirpal II of Assyria reached the Mediterranean and exacted a tribute from the Canaanite coastal cities. Ashurnasirpal was followed by king Shalmaneser III, who rose to power in 858 BC.

Assyrian Empire impact on Phoenician city-states
While Shalmaneser III maintained good relations with the city-states like Tyre, Sidon, Arwad, and Byblos, he demanded an occasional tribute, (bronze, tin, silver, gold, ebony, and ivory, according to Aubet). Direct annexation began in 744 BC with Tiglath-Pileser III. By 738 BC, most of the Levant, including northern Phoenicia, was annexed, leaving only Tyre, Sidon and Byblos as tributary states.

A fresh invasion by Shalmaneser V took place in 725 BC after Tyre, Byblos, and Sidon rebelled against Assyrian rule. In 721 BC, Sargon II besieged Tyre and crushed the rebellion. In 701 BC Sennacherib, facing a rebellion of Philistia, Judah, and Phoenicia, drove out and deposed Luli, identified as king of both Sidon and Tyre.

In 678 BC Sidon rebelled against the Assyrians, who annihilated the city and rebuilt it on the mainland. Sieges of Tyre took place in 672 BC and 668 BC, but the city resisted both, only submitting in the later years of Ashurbanipal, the last great king of the Assyrian Empire.

Neo-Babylonian siege of Tyre
The Babylonians, former Assyrian vassals, rebelled and formed the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Phoenician cities revolted during the reigns of Nabopolassar (626–605 BC) and Nebuchadnezzar II (c.?605 – c.?562 BC). Nebuchadnezzar II besieged Tyre, supposedly for thirteen years (585 BC through 573 BC, per contemporary Phoenician historiography, following the 587 BC conquest of Jerusalem), though the city wasn't destroyed. This thirteen-year siege length is only found in Josephus' first-century writings. Helen Dixon suggests the "siege" was likely smaller interventions or a limited blockade.

Greek Expansion

Greek Expansion by c 550 BC

The so-called collapse of the bronze age civilisations in the Middle East between about 1200 BC and 1150 BC, also spelled the end for the Mycenaean civilisation. Trade and diplomatic relations broke down and many of the Mycenaean palace sites and cities were abandoned. The residents of those cities migrated into the surrounding countryside, becoming farmers and stockbreeders. There were fewer, smaller, settlements suggesting a drastic fall in population.

Greek Dark Ages
Some authors refer to this period, from about 1200 to about 900 BC as the Greek Dark Ages. To some extent they are correct in that the use of writing, Linear B as used by the Mycenaeans, declined or stopped so there are no written records of the period. The language that was to emerge within the Greek sphere, about 800 BC, was based on the Phoenician alphabet with the addition of vowels. Monumental building ceased and there was a distinct lack of decoration on ceramics compared to the fabulously decorated vases and craters of the earlier period. The pottery of the Protogeometric and Geometric periods is significantly less ornate than Mycenaean pottery.

Information about the ‘Dark Age’ largely comes from tombs and archaeological excavations. The latest research shows that, whilst the situation was gloomy, all was not as dark as first supposed. Athens, Thebes and Eleon survived the ‘collapse’, albeit with diminished status and means and recovered early, between 1170 and 1100 BC. The recovery is marked by the emergence of the Protogeometric style of pottery.

Significance of Lefkandi
One area of Greece that thrived throughout the period of the collapse and afterwards is Euboea. Euboea is the second largest Greek island after Crete and is situated just off the northeast coast of mainland Greece. During the bronze age, Lefkandi became a prominent city on the island. During the period 1200 to 1050 BC, Lefkandi became more prominent, increasing in size and population, due to its advantageous position on the Aegean maritime trading routes.

Excavations at Lefkandi have revealed significant finds, including the "Heroon," a large building containing burials and rich grave goods, suggesting continued prosperity. The evidence suggests Lefkandi's importance in trade networks.

Greek Cities during the Early Iron Age
By the early Iron Age, about 1050 BC, there were four cities with populations over 1000, Athens, Lefkandi, and Argos in Greece, and Knossos on Crete. Artifacts discovered in this nucleus of what was to become a mighty empire, indicate cultural connections between Cyprus, Egypt and, after about 900 BC, the Levant.

Just over a century later, the Greeks were expanding their trading empire, reaching Sicily in 734 BC, Marseilles about 600 BC, Empuries on the coast of Catalonia during the early 6th century BC and at an as yet unplaced colony called Hemeroskopeion, that was probably close to Alicante, a few years later.

References

Rise of Assyria

Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III:
A. Kirk Grayson, Assyrian Rulers of the Early First Millennium BC I (858-745 BC), Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia. Assyrian Periods, vol. 3 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991): This is a primary source collection of Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III's inscriptions, detailing their military campaigns and the tribute they exacted. Look for references to their campaigns in the Levant and mentions of Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, and Arwad.
Sabahattin Bayram, The Role of the Phoenicians in the Mediterranean Trade Network in the First Millennium B.C. (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2017): This book discusses the Phoenician trade network and how it was affected by Assyrian expansion, including the tribute demanded by Shalmaneser III.
Tiglath-Pileser III and Sargon II:
Hayim Tadmor, The Inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser III, King of Assyria (Jerusalem: The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1994): Another primary source collection, this work details Tiglath-Pileser III's campaigns and his annexation of parts of the Levant.
J. N. Postgate, The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume III, Part 2: The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991): This provides secondary source analysis of the period, putting Tiglath-Pileser III's actions in context.
Shalmaneser V, Sargon II, and Sennacherib:
A. Fuchs and S. Parpola, The Correspondence of Sargon II, Part I: Letters from Assyria and the West (Helsinki: Helsinki University Press, 2001): This contains letters relating to Sargon II's reign, which shed light on the rebellion of Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos.
Daniel David Luckenbill, The Annals of Sennacherib (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1924): This primary source details Sennacherib's campaigns, including his actions against Luli of Tyre and Sidon.
Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal:
R. Borger, Assyrische Texte mit Keilschriftzeichen (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1965): This collection has inscriptions of Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal, which would be the primary source for the sieges of Tyre and its eventual submission.
Neo-Babylonian Period and Nebuchadnezzar II:
D. J. Wiseman, Chronicles of Chaldaean Kings (626-556 BC) (London: British Museum Press, 1991): This book contains the Babylonian Chronicles, a key source for the Neo-Babylonian period, although it may not have extensive information on the Phoenician cities.
Josephus, Against Apion and Antiquities of the Jews: Josephus is a key, albeit later, source for the 13-year siege of Tyre. It's important to be aware of the potential biases and time distance involved with using Josephus.
Dixon, H. M. (2022). Re-examining Nebuchadnezzar II’s ‘Thirteen-Year’ Siege of Tyre in Phoenician Historiography [Open Access at https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/jah-2022-0007/html]. Journal of Ancient History, 10(2), 165–199. https://doi.org/10.1515/jah-2022-0007 Greek Expansion
Cline, Eric H. 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed. Princeton University Press, 2014. (A good overview of the various theories surrounding the collapse).
Drews, Robert. The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe c. 1200 B.C. Princeton University Press, 1993. (Focuses on the role of warfare).
The Greek Dark Ages (c. 1200-900 BC):
Snodgrass, A.M. The Dark Age of Greece. Edinburgh University Press, 1971. (A classic work on the period).
Cartledge, Paul. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Ancient Greece. Cambridge University Press, 2002. (Provides a broader historical context).
Euboea and Lefkandi:
Popham, M.R., and L.H. Sackett. Lefkandi I: The Iron Age. British School at Athens, 1980. (A key publication on the Lefkandi excavations).
Greek Expansion (8th-6th Centuries BC):
Boardman, John. The Greeks Overseas. Thames & Hudson, 1999. (A good overview of Greek colonization).
Graham, A.J. Colony and Mother City in Ancient Greece. Manchester University Press, 1964. (Focuses on the relationship between colonies and their mother cities).