Phoenician Expansion during the Iron Age

The Middle East during the Phoenician Expansion Period

The rise and fall of the Phoenician city-states set against a backdrop of Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian expansion. Phoenician traders reach the Atlantic coast and colonise the western Mediterranean. The Greeks emerge from their Dark Age.

By Nick Nutter on 2025-02-8 | Last Updated 2026-02-14 | Phoenician Expansion during the Iron Age

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Bronze Age Collapse

The Emergence of the Canaanite City States c. 1200 – 900 BC

The progression of the Phoenician expansion into the western Mediterranean must be set against the backcloth of events at home in the Levant.

The emergence of the independent Canaanite city-states and subsequent territorial kingdoms was a direct consequence of the widespread collapse of the Late Bronze Age (LBA) international political and trading systems around 1200 BC. The catastrophic failure of major powers, namely the final retreat of Egyptian administrative control from the Levant and the fall of the Hittite and Mycenaean empires, created a power vacuum in the region. LBA vassal cities, such as Ugarit, Troy, Kadesh, and Enkomi, which had been nodes in a vast trade network, lost their external patrons, plunging the region into a period known as the Iron Age I (c. 1200–1000 BC). Early historians also referred to this period as the ‘Greek Dark Ages.’

This transitional era saw the fragmentation of political authority and a severe reduction in long-distance trade. The vacuum facilitated the establishment of new, distinct ethno-political entities. Along the southern coast, the arrival of the Sea Peoples led to the establishment of the Philistine city-states (Pentapolis: Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron), which maintained a sophisticated, Aegean-influenced culture and military prowess.

Simultaneously, in the central highlands, the settlement of groups identified as Israelites created an indigenous, non-urbanized societal structure that eventually consolidated into the early Kingdom of Israel about 1050 BC. To the east of the Jordan River, territorial polities like Ammon, Moab, and Edom began to coalesce.

The Iron Age II (c. 1000–900 BC) marks the period of true re-emergence and consolidation. The collapse of the major imperial powers allowed the surviving coastal cities to evolve into the Canaanite city-states (primarily Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos). These polities capitalised on their maritime tradition, becoming the dominant commercial forces in the Mediterranean.

Tyre, in particular, rose to ascendancy, establishing trading colonies across the sea. There was an early Phoenician presence in Cyprus soon after 1100 BC, the founding of Cadiz between 1100 and 870 BC (the founding dates for Cadiz are still hotly contested), and the founding of Carthage in Tunisia and Motya just across the Straits of Sicily on Sicily itself about 814 BC.

Meanwhile, in the hinterland, the territorial kingdoms of Israel and Judah centralised their control under monarchs like David (about 1010 to 970 BC) and Solomon (about 970 to 931 BC), dominating the central Levant. Further north, Aramaean city-states, especially Damascus, grew into formidable regional rivals during the 11th century BC.

By the 9th century BC, the geopolitical landscape of Canaan was defined by a mosaic of resilient, specialised polities. The decentralised, commerce-driven Phoenician cities dominated the sea, and the centralised, land-based territorial states such as Israel, Aram-Damascus, and Moab, vied for resources and regional hegemony. This environment of competitive local autonomy and consolidated kingdoms continued until the mid-9th century BC, when the expansion of the Neo-Assyrian Empire began to systematically annex the Levant, ending the era of native Canaanite independence.

Keeping in in the Family

By this time the Phoenicians had extended their trading tentacles along the coast of North Africa and were well on the way to securing their holdings in the Iberian Peninsula. Their methodology had been tried and tested for millennia in the karums of the Assyrians, and by the traders of Ugarit and Mari. The trade was kept in the family with family members in charge in Levantine city-states operating through close relatives in their colonies.

The people we call "Phoenicians" did not call themselves by that name. They referred to themselves as Canaanites and their land as Canaan (or identified primarily by their specific city-state, like "Tyrians" or "Sidonians"). The distinction between "Canaanites" and "Phoenicians" is largely an artificial one created by Greek historians during the 8th century BC, to describe the cultural continuity of these people from the Bronze Age through the Iron Age.

Decline of the Canaanite City States 900 to 550 BC

Assyrian Empire c 700 BC

In the 9th century BC, the independence of local autonomies and consolidated kingdoms came to an end with the advancement of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. In 868 BC, Ashurnasirpal II of Assyria reached the Mediterranean and exacted a tribute from the Canaanite coastal cities. Ashurnasirpal was followed by king Shalmaneser III, who rose to power in 858 BC.

Neo-Assyrian Empire impact on Canaanite city-states

While Shalmaneser III maintained good relations with the city-states like Tyre, Sidon, Arwad, and Byblos, he demanded an occasional tribute, (bronze, tin, silver, gold, ebony, and ivory, according to Aubet). Direct annexation began in 744 BC with Tiglath-Pileser III. By 738 BC, most of the Levant, including northern Phoenicia, was annexed, leaving only Tyre, Sidon and Byblos as tributary states.

A fresh invasion by Shalmaneser V took place in 725 BC after Tyre, Byblos, and Sidon rebelled against Assyrian rule. In 721 BC, Sargon II besieged Tyre and crushed the rebellion. In 701 BC Sennacherib, facing a rebellion of Philistia, Judah, and Phoenicia, drove out and deposed Luli, identified as king of both Sidon and Tyre.

In 678 BC Sidon rebelled against the Assyrians, who annihilated the city and rebuilt it on the mainland. Sieges of Tyre took place in 672 BC and 668 BC, but the city resisted both, only submitting in the later years of Ashurbanipal, the last great king of the Assyrian Empire.

Neo-Babylonian impact on Canaanite city-states

The Babylonians, former Assyrian vassals, rebelled and formed the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Phoenician cities revolted during the reigns of Nabopolassar (626–605 BC) and Nebuchadnezzar II (c. 605 – c. 562 BC). Nebuchadnezzar II besieged Tyre, supposedly for thirteen years (585 BC through 573 BC, according to contemporary Phoenician historiography, following the 587 BC conquest of Jerusalem), though the city wasn't destroyed. This thirteen-year siege length is only found in Josephus' first-century writings. Helen Dixon suggests the "siege" was likely smaller interventions or a limited blockade.

Increasing Pressure on Phoenicia

Between 868 BC and 573 BC, the Phoenician city states came under increasing pressure from, first the Neo-Assyrians, and then after about 626 BC, the Neo-Babylonians, to increase the importation of precious metals and exotic products to fuel the new emerging economies. At the same time, specifically in 814 BC, and between 744 and 738 BC, 725 and 721 BC, 701 BC, and at various times between 626 and 573 BC, the Phoenician merchant elites emigrated from their homeland to pastures new and more peaceful in North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, the Balearic Islands and the Iberian Peninsula. We see more evidence of elite artefacts and superior dwellings in Phoenician contexts throughout the western Mediterranean. In 814 BC, Carthage was founded by one such group of emigres from Tyre. The increasingly powerful and wealthy Carthage developed as a maritime power during this troubled period and effectively took over the existing Phoenician settlements and colonies. From about 600 BC, the Carthaginians/Phoenicians are often known as Punic.

Emerging Greek Competition

Greek Expansion by c 550 BC

The so-called collapse of the Bronze Age civilisations in the Middle East between about 1200 BC and 1150 BC, also spelled the end for the Mycenaean civilisation. Trade and diplomatic relations broke down and many of the Mycenaean palace sites and cities were abandoned. The residents of those cities migrated into the surrounding countryside, becoming farmers and stockbreeders. There were fewer, smaller, settlements suggesting a drastic fall in population.

The Greek Dark Ages

Some authors refer to this period, from about 1200 to about 900 BC as the Greek Dark Ages. To an extent they are correct in that the use of writing, Linear B as used by the Mycenaeans, declined or stopped so there are no written records of the period. The language that was to emerge within the Greek sphere, about 800 BC, was based on the Phoenician alphabet with the addition of vowels. Monumental building ceased and there was a distinct lack of decoration on ceramics compared to the fabulously decorated vases and craters of the earlier period. The pottery of the Protogeometric and Geometric periods is significantly less ornate than Mycenaean pottery.

Information about the ‘Dark Age’ largely comes from tombs and archaeological excavations. The latest research shows that, whilst the situation was gloomy, all was not as dark as first supposed. Athens, Thebes and Eleon survived the ‘collapse’, albeit with diminished status and means and recovered early, between 1170 and 1100 BC. The recovery is marked by the emergence of the Protogeometric style of pottery.

The Significance of Lefkandi

One area of Greece that thrived throughout the period of the collapse and afterwards is Euboea. Euboea is the second largest Greek island after Crete and is situated just off the northeast coast of mainland Greece. During the Bronze Age, Lefkandi became an outstanding city on the island. During the period 1200 to 1050 BC, Lefkandi became more prominent, increasing in size and population, due to its advantageous position on the Aegean maritime trading routes.

Excavations at Lefkandi have revealed significant finds, including the "Heroon," a large building containing burials and rich grave goods, suggesting continued prosperity. The evidence points towards Lefkandi's importance in trade networks.

Greek Cities during the Early Iron Age

By the early Iron Age, about 1050 BC, there were four cities with populations over 1000, Athens, Lefkandi, and Argos in Greece, and Knossos on Crete. Artifacts discovered in this nucleus of what was to become a mighty empire, indicate cultural connections between Cyprus, Egypt and, after about 900 BC, the Levant.

Just over a century later, the Greeks were expanding their trading empire, reaching Sicily in 734 BC, Marseilles in southern France about 600 BC, Empuries on the coast of Catalonia, Spain, during the early 6th century BC and at an as yet unplaced colony called Hemeroskopeion, that was probably close to Alicante, a few years later.

Maritime Trading Networks that Survived the Bronze Age Collapse

The Phoenicians were not sailing into the unknown. A number of maritime trading networks in the Mediterranean survived the Bronze Age collapse and were to provide both competition and trading partners. The next article takes a look at those networks. As you will see, there was a hell of a lot more going on during the ‘Greek Dark Ages’ than early historians ever dreamed of.

References

Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III:
A. Kirk Grayson, Assyrian Rulers of the Early First Millennium BC I (858-745 BC), Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia. Assyrian Periods, vol. 3 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991): This is a primary source collection of Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III's inscriptions, detailing their military campaigns and the tribute they exacted. Look for references to their campaigns in the Levant and mentions of Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, and Arwad.
Sabahattin Bayram, The Role of the Phoenicians in the Mediterranean Trade Network in the First Millennium B.C. (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2017): This book discusses the Phoenician trade network and how it was affected by Assyrian expansion, including the tribute demanded by Shalmaneser III.
Tiglath-Pileser III and Sargon II:
Hayim Tadmor, The Inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser III, King of Assyria (Jerusalem: The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1994): Another primary source collection, this work details Tiglath-Pileser III's campaigns and his annexation of parts of the Levant.
J. N. Postgate, The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume III, Part 2: The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991): This provides secondary source analysis of the period, putting Tiglath-Pileser III's actions in context.
Shalmaneser V, Sargon II, and Sennacherib:
A. Fuchs and S. Parpola, The Correspondence of Sargon II, Part I: Letters from Assyria and the West (Helsinki: Helsinki University Press, 2001): This contains letters relating to Sargon II's reign, which shed light on the rebellion of Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos.
Daniel David Luckenbill, The Annals of Sennacherib (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1924): This primary source details Sennacherib's campaigns, including his actions against Luli of Tyre and Sidon.
Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal:
R. Borger, Assyrische Texte mit Keilschriftzeichen (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1965): This collection has inscriptions of Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal, which would be the primary source for the sieges of Tyre and its eventual submission.
Neo-Babylonian Period and Nebuchadnezzar II:
D. J. Wiseman, Chronicles of Chaldaean Kings (626-556 BC) (London: British Museum Press, 1991): This book contains the Babylonian Chronicles, a key source for the Neo-Babylonian period, although it may not have extensive information on the Phoenician cities.
Josephus, Against Apion and Antiquities of the Jews: Josephus is a key, albeit later, source for the 13-year siege of Tyre. It's important to be aware of the potential biases and time distance involved with using Josephus.
Dixon, H. M. (2022). Re-examining Nebuchadnezzar II's 'Thirteen-Year' Siege of Tyre in Phoenician Historiography [Open Access at https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/jah-2022-0007/html]. Journal of Ancient History, 10(2), 165 - 199. https://doi.org/10.1515/jah-2022-0007
Greek Expansion
Cline, Eric H. 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed. Princeton University Press, 2014. (A good overview of the various theories surrounding the collapse).
Drews, Robert. The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe c. 1200 B.C. Princeton University Press, 1993. (Focuses on the role of warfare).
The Greek Dark Ages (c. 1200-900 BC):
Snodgrass, A.M. The Dark Age of Greece. Edinburgh University Press, 1971. (A classic work on the period).
Cartledge, Paul. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Ancient Greece. Cambridge University Press, 2002. (Provides a broader historical context).
Euboea and Lefkandi:
Popham, M.R., and L.H. Sackett. Lefkandi I: The Iron Age. British School at Athens, 1980. (A key publication on the Lefkandi excavations).
Greek Expansion (8th-6th Centuries BC):
Boardman, John. The Greeks Overseas. Thames & Hudson, 1999. (A good overview of Greek colonization).
Graham, A.J. Colony and Mother City in Ancient Greece. Manchester University Press, 1964. (Focuses on the relationship between colonies and their mother cities).